According to Graeme (1998), a corpus is made up of an empirical basis for identifying the elements and structural patterns of the systems in a language and for mapping out our use of the systems. We should be able to analyse and compare a corpus with other corpora or parts of corpora to study variation. A corpus must also be analysed distributionally to show how often and where particular lexical, phonological, grammatical, discoursal or pragmatic features occur.
Based on the definition above, the research tries to investigate some features of the corpus compiled specifically for this study. The data was gathered from the internet. The corpus is based on Malaysian English, that is, English as used by Malaysians in written mode.
Because the corpus size is only about 23,000 words, the study cannot claim to represent the true nature of Malaysian English because it does not have enough genres to represent the whole language. However, certain aspects, such as collocation and semantic prosody are observable in the corpus.
This study looks at the lexico-semantic analysis, where if is selected for the corpus.
The Corpus
The data for the written corpus was obtained from the internet. Five websites were viewed and retrieved, and all of them are related to hobbies. The websites are, Anuar’s Fishing Site: Fishes, Anuar’s Fishing Site: Articles (issues on fishing), New Gunung Online: Gear Page, Kuala Lumpur Mountainbike Hash: Trails in Peninsular Malaysia and Dan Loh’s Martial Arts Site: Background Page.
The pages from Anuar’s Fishing Site, which are Fishes and Articles (issues on fishing) were viewed and retrieved on 21st July 2004 from http://www.fortunecity.co.uk/olympia/martial/70/ and http://www.fortunecity.co.uk/olympia/martial/70/article1.html respectively. Fishes deals with the types of fish which can be found and caught in Malaysia. It also explains the details of the fishes and how to fish them. Articles (issues on fishing) on the other hand, consists of two articles. Sportsfishing for Dummies talks about the types of fishing equipment, and Is fishing a game or just a hobby or just to cari makan?? talks about issues of game fishing. New Gunung Online: Gear Page was viewed and retrieved on 21st July 2001 from http://marina.fortunecity.com/harbourside/83/. It deals with the types of necessary equipment and gear suitable for jungle trekking in Malaysian climate and weather. Kuala Lumpur Mountainbike Hash: Trails in Peninsular Malaysia was viewed and retrieved on 22nd July 2004 from http://www.bikehash.freeservers.com. The Website offers details of the various mountbiking trails found in Peninsular Malaysia. Dan Loh’s Martial Arts Site: Background Page was viewed and retrieved on 25th July 2004 from http://members.tripod.com/%7EKerg/dan/index.html. The page tells the history and experience of a martial artist, and how he got to be who he is today.
The Analysis
For written corpus, the word if is selected for analysis. In the corpus, if occurs 39 times. According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary (1989), if has nine basic meanings, which are:
1. on condition that, supposing,
a. likely situations (using present and present perfect tenses),
b. imaginary situations or unlikely (using past tense),
2. when or whenever,
3. as a polite request (usually used with will and would),
4. to introduce alternative; whether (used after ask, know, find out, wonder etc.),
5. to express feelings (usually used after Verbs or Adjectives),
6. admitting that something may be true or may happen; although,
7. used before an Adjective to introduce a contrast; although also,
8. to express surprise, astonishment, dismay etc., and
9. used before you think, ask, remember etc to invite somebody to listen to one’s opinion.
With the meanings in mind, if is used in a complex sentence, as a relative clause (if-clause). According to Dictionary.com, the clause is introduced by if to indicate uncertainty, conditional, presupposed occurrences (contrary to fact or not) and indirect questions.
The study found that if occurs mostly in the initial position of a sentence, a clause, or following an adverbial clause. For instance:
1. Initial position of a sentence
| 2 | seeping from the ground to sleeping bag. | If | a person has a sleeping mat but with no |
| 3 | is about 30 kilometres South of Ipoh). | If | coming from KL on the old Ipoh trunk road |
| 8 | but can your sister? Can she? | If | she can’t then the martial art you’ve both |
| 10 | of the braided line exceeds this figure. | If | the drag is set too high, the free spool may |
| 15 | organised here by Major Jaafar in 1999. | If | visiting Kelly’s Castle, be sure to |
| 19 | nets and converted into keropoks . | If | you are really keen on fishing, go |
| 22 | example, it does not include Sungai Long. | If | you have information on this or any other |
| 25 | nobody land cobia using fly tackle. | If | you got one please let me know. |
| 30 | Freshwater game fishing. photograph | If | you catch a Tilapia with a 30lb line and rods |
| 31 | can hardly be seen from the Rover track. | If | you ride it in the reverse direction of the race |
2. Initial position of a clause
| 1 | questions spurred me on to determine | if | a martial art is good, |
| 5 | could kill all those guys in that kiddy fight | if | it happened again. |
| 6 | , the trail can be extremely muddy | if | it rains, consuming much time and |
| 11 | want to use the cutter at the end because | if | the pound test exceeds the rod’s |
| 14 | break before the line does. Also, | if | using a lever drag reel, it’s important |
| 16 | judgement for a bit, I would appreciate | if | you will read these pages with the spirit of a |
| 17 | This is definitely not a game or sport. But | if | you used a 4lb line and prawn hooks and |
| 18 | good budget for all You wouldn’t do this | if | you just want to cari makan , it is |
3. Following an adverbial clause
| 20 | ruan Tasik ), and Dorado. Now folks, | if | you participate in a fishing competition |
| 27 | on the use of these lines. My advice, | if | you become snagged, don’t pull with the |
Similar to the phrase I think, because of its position in the initial position of a clause or sentence, if is immediately followed by pronouns such as it, she, and you, noun phrase or nouns, such as a martial art and a person. For example:
1. Followed by Pronouns
| 5 | could kill all those guys in that kiddy fight | if | it happened again. |
| 6 | , the trail can be extremely muddy | if | it rains, consuming much time and |
| 8 | but can your sister? Can she? | If | she can’t then the martial art you’ve both |
| 16 | judgement for a bit, I would appreciate | if | you will read these pages with the spirit of a |
| 17 | definitely not a game or sport. But | if | you used a 4lb line and prawn hooks and strike |
| 22 | example, it does not include Sungai Long. | If | you have information on this or any other trail |
| 25 | nobody land cobia using fly tackle. | If | you got one please let me know. Tackle |
2. Followed by Nouns or Noun Phrase
| 1 | questions spurred me on to determine | if | a martial art is good, |
| 2 | seeping from the ground to sleeping bag. | If | a person has a sleeping mat but with |
| 10 | of the braided line exceeds this figure. | If | the drag is set too high, the free spool |
| 11 | to use the cutter at the end because | if | the pound test exceeds the rod’s |
| 39 | The most helpful little piece of equipment | if | your rucsac rucsac rucksack or your |
From the analysis, we can see a collocation pattern where the most highly frequent pronoun to follow if is you (24 occurrences out of 39). Perhaps this happens because the nature of the texts; all the texts are descriptive texts where the authors give descriptions based on their hobbies. Therefore, the texts were written in such a manner as if the authors are giving direct explanation and description to the readers.
The study found that if is used the most to mean likely situation, with the use of present tense (21 occurrences). There are only three occurrences of if being used to refer to imaginary or unlikely situation, with the use of past tense. We can see this is:
1. Likely situation
| 1 | questions spurred me on to determine | if | a martial art is good, I don’t want |
| 6 | , the trail can be extremely muddy | if | it rains, consuming much time and energy |
| 7 | seeping from the ground to sleeping bag. | If | a person has a sleeping mat but with no |
| 8 | you can, but can your sister? Can she? | If | she can’t then the martial art you’ve |
| 9 | allow the fish a fighting chance. So what | if | the fish escapes? Remember, |
| 10 | of the braided line exceeds this figure. | If | the drag is set too high, the free spool |
| 11 | want to use the cutter at the end because | if | the pound test exceeds the rod’s |
| 18 | budget for all You wouldn’t do this | if | you just want to cari makan , it is |
| 19 | the nets and converted into keropoks . | If | you are really keen on fishing, go for |
| 20 | Haruan Tasik ), and Dorado. Now folks, | if | you participate in a fishing competition |
| 22 | it does not include Sungai Long. | If | you have information on this or any other |
| 24 | is to play a game with the fish. And | if | you do land the fish and release it immediately |
| 23 | fishing for one reason, GAME. Again, | if | you think it is not a game, you are wrong. |
| 27 | on the use of these lines. My advice, | if | you become snagged, don’t pull with |
| 28 | Sungai Chongkak on your left. * Pangsun. | If | you continue North along the Ulu |
| 29 | Navigation photograph | If | you are on a guided trip, all the |
| 30 | Freshwater game fishing photograph | If | you catch a Tilapia with a 30lb line |
| 31 | can hardly be seen from the Rover track. | If | you ride it in the reverse direction of the |
| 33 | be careful that you don’t get lost | if | you are unfamiliar with the area. You |
| 36 | Mercedes sign. You’ll come to this sign | if | you are entering Ipoh from the South on |
| 39 | The most helpful little piece of equipment | if | your rucsac rucsac rucksack or your |
2. Imaginary or unlikely situation
| 5 | could kill all those guys in that kiddy fight | if | it happened again. But |
| 17 | This is definitely not a game or sport. But | if | you used a 4lb line and prawn hooks |
| 25 | nobody land cobia using fly tackle. | If | you got one please let me know. |
Besides that, the study also found instances of if followed by a gerund. It is as if the word is being used as a preposition and the clause is a prepositional clause, where the verb which follows it is in –ing form (gerund). Although this use of if is considered incorrect English by traditional grammar, there are four instances of it in the corpus. Perhaps this is the short version of if you are (verb)+ ing, where you are is dropped.
| 3 | is about 30 kilometres South of Ipoh). | If | coming from KL on the old Ipoh trunk road |
| 4 | South Expressway on the Tambun road ( | if | coming from Ipoh). The limestone outcrop |
| 14 | may break before the line does. Also, | if | using a lever drag reel, it’s important |
| 15 | organised here by Major Jaafar in 1999. | If | visiting Kelly’s Castle, be sure to check out |
In addition to that, the use of if in the corpus also gives the sense that the author leaves it to how the reader is feeling for further actions. For example:
| 19 | the nets and converted into keropoks . | If | you are really keen on fishing, go for a |
| 32 | Important!! Be sure to tell your dealer | if | you plan on using the new braided, super thin |
| 34 | doing long trips to hire a guide. However, | if | you prefer the more adventurous way |
| 37 | me your comments or send photos, | if | you feel so inclined. Go Fishing! |
| 38 | welcomes your contribution to this page. | If | you would like to post a review of your |
Most of the uses of if in the study carry a positive semantic prosody. Most are positive situations where people may find themselves in and things which people may do. For instance:
| 2 | the ground to sleeping bag. | If | a person has a sleeping mat but with no |
| 3 | is about 30 kilometres South of Ipoh). | If | coming from KL on the old Ipoh trunk road |
| 15 | organised here by Major Jaafar in 1999. | If | visiting Kelly’s Castle, be sure to check out |
| 29 | Navigation photograph | If | you are on a guided trip, all the burdent |
| 31 | can hardly be seen from the Rover track. | If | you ride it in the reverse direction of the |
| 34 | doing long trips to hire a guide. However, | if | you prefer the more adventurous way |
| 36 | Mercedes sign. You’ll come to this sign | if | you are entering Ipoh from the South |
The use of if in the corpus also implies that the authors are giving advice and warnings to the readers. The nature of the texts is descriptive texts, where the authors give descriptions and explanation based on the hobbies. Therefore, they also include advice for the readers, who presumably have the same hobby, on what to do and how to do it if a situation arises. For example:
| 6 | the trail can be extremely muddy | if | it rains, consuming much time and energy |
| 10 | of the braided line exceeds this figure. | If | the drag is set too high, the free spool may |
| 11 | the cutter at the end because | if | the pound test exceeds the rod’s |
| 14 | may break before the line does. Also, | if | using a lever drag reel, it’s important that you |
| 17 | is definitely not a game or sport. But | if | you used a 4lb line and prawn hooks and |
| 27 | on the use of these lines. My advice, | if | you become snagged, don’t pull with the rod. |
| 30 | Freshwater game fishing photograph | If | you catch a Tilapia with a 30lb line and rods |
| 32 | Important!! Be sure to tell your dealer | if | you plan on using the new braided, super |
| 33 | , be careful that you don’t get lost | if | you are unfamiliar with the area. You |
In short, if is used in the corpus is found to occur mostly in the initial position of a sentence, a clause, or following an adverbial clause. Similar to the phrase I think in the spoken corpus, because of its position in the initial position of a clause or sentence, if is immediately followed by pronouns, noun phrase or nouns. We can see a collocation pattern where the most highly frequent pronoun to follow if is you. This could suggest that the texts were written in such a manner as if the authors are giving direct explanation and description to the readers. The study also found that if is used the most to mean likely situation, with the use of present tense with 21 occurrences.
Besides that, the study found four instances of if followed by a gerund, as if the word is acting as a preposition. Most of the uses of if in the study carry a positive semantic prosody. Most are positive situations where people may find themselves in and things which people may do. The use of if in the corpus also implies that the authors are giving advice and warnings to the readers. Descriptive texts, where the authors give descriptions and explanation based on the hobbies, allow them to also include advice for the readers, who presumably have the same hobby, on what and how to act in a particular situation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dictionary.com. Viewed and retrieved on 27th September 2004 from http://dictionary.reference.com/
Graeme, Kennedy. An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics. London: Longman, 1998.
Hanston, Susan. Corpora in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (4th Ed.). Cowie, A.P. (Chief Ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989
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